Glossary of Food-Related Terms (Hh)

Glossary of Food-Related Terms (Hh)

HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points) -

The underlying approach under HACCP for preventing foodborne illness and promoting quality is to identify the danger spots and try to avoid them. Instead of putting the burden on government to discover that a food safety problem exists, HACCP shifts responsibility onto the industry to ensure that the food it produces is safe. Food producers will have to prevent bacterial contamination from occurring in the first place. HACCP works by the following principles:

1. Identify the likely health hazards to consumers in a given product.
2. Identify the critical points in the processing where the hazards may occur.
3. Establish safety measures to prevent the hazard from occurring.
4. Monitor to make sure the safety measures are working.
5. Establish an appropriate remedy if monitoring shows a problem.
6. Establish detailed record keeping documenting monitoring and remedies taken.
7. Verify that the whole system is working.

Health claims -

Claims that link food or food components in the overall diet with a lowered risk of some chronic diseases strictly regulated by the Food and Drug Administration. Only health claims supported by scientific evidence are allowed on food labels. Since this information is optional so many foods that meet the criteria don’t carry any health claim on their label.

Helix -

A spiral, staircase-like structure with a repeating pattern described by two simultaneous operations (rotation and translation). It is one of the natural conformations exhibited by biological polymers.

Herbicides -

Herbicides are a class of crop protection and specialty chemicals used to control weeds on farms and in forests, as well as in non-agricultural applications such as golf courses, public tracts of land and residential lawns.

High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) -

HFCS are formulations generally containing 42 percent, 55 percent or 90 percent fructose (the remaining carbohydrate being primarily glucose) depending on the product application. HCFS are used in products such as soft drinks or cake mixes.

Homeostasis -

The ability or tendency of an organism or cell to maintain internal equilibrium by adjusting its physiological processes.

Hydrogenation -

Hydrogenation is the process of adding hydrogen molecules directly to an unsaturated fatty acid from sources such as vegetable oils to convert it to a semi-solid form such as margarine or shortening. Hydrogenation contributes important textural properties to food. The degree of hydrogenation influences the firmness and spreadability of margarines, flakiness of pie crust and the creaminess of puddings. Hydrogenated oils are sometimes used in place of other fats with higher proportions of saturated fatty acids such as butter or lard.

Hypertension -

Hypertension is the persistently elevated arterial blood pressure. It is the most common public health problem in developed countries. Emphasis on lifestyle modifications has given diet a prominent role for both the primary prevention and management of hypertension.

Glossary of Food-Related Terms (Gg)

Glossary of Food-Related Terms (Gg)

Galactose -

A monosaccharide occurring in both levo (L) and dextro (D) forms as a constituent of plant and animal oligosaccharides (lactose and raffinose) and polysaccharides (agar and pectin). Galactose is the sugar derived from digesting lactose (milk sugar).

Gallbladder disease -

There are several different forms of gallbladder disease: 1) Gallstones without symptoms. About 20% of women and 8% of men will develop gallstones. In most of these cases; gallstones do not produce symptoms and thus usually do not require treatment. 2) Biliary colic. This condition occurs when a gallstone intermittently blocks the duct that drains the gallbladder (cystic duct). Biliary colic usually causes severe steady pain that lasts from 15 to 60 minutes to up to 6 hours. 3) Inflammation of the gallbladder (acute cholecystitis). This condition occurs when a gallstone becomes stuck in the cystic duct and causing severe abdominal pain that lasts longer than 6 hours. It is the most common complication of gallstone disease. 4) Chronic cholecystitis. This condition develops when there is long term (chronic) inflammation of the gallbladder. The wall of the gallbladder may be thickened and rigid. 5) Common bile duct stones (choledocholithiasis). This condition occurs when a gallstone passes through the cystic duct into the common bile duct. About 8 to 15% of people who have gallstones also have common bile duct stones. Most people who have common bile duct stones do not have symptoms. However, people who do have symptoms may develop life-threatening complications such as infection and inflammation of the bile duct or pancreas.

Gastronomy -

The study and appreciation of good food and good eating and a culture's culinary customs style and lore. Any interest or study of culinary pursuits as relates essentially to the kitchen and cookery and to the higher levels of education, training and achievement of the chef apprentice or professional chef.

Gene -

A natural unit of the hereditary material which is the physical basis for the transmission of the characteristics of living organisms from one generation to another. The basic genetic material is fundamentally the same in all living organisms; it consists of chain-like molecules of nucleic acids-deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in most organisms and ribonucleic acid (RNA) in certain viruses and is usually associated in a linear arrangement that (in part) constitutes a chromosome.

Generalizability -

The extent to which the results of a study are able to be applied to the general population of people that is comparable to the population studied.

Genetic engineering/ Genetic modification/ Genetic enhancement -

The selective and deliberate alteration of genes (genetic material) by man. This term has a very broad meaning including the manipulation and alteration of the genetic material of an organism in such a way as to allow it to produce endogenous proteins with properties different from those of the normal or to produce entirely different (foreign) proteins altogether. Other words applicable to the same process are gene splicing, gene manipulation, or recombinant DNA technology.

Genome -

The total hereditary material of a cell containing the entire chromosomal set found in each nucleus of a given species.

Glucose -

A sugar most commonly in the form of dextroglucose that occurs naturally has about half the sweetening power of regular sugar and does not crystallize easily.

Glutamate -

Glutamate is an amino acid that is necessary for metabolism and brain function and is manufactured by the body. It is found in virtually every protein food we eat. In food, there is "bound" glutamate and "free" glutamate. Glutamate serves to enhance flavors in foods when it is in its free form and not bound to other amino acids in protein. Some foods have greater quantities of glutamate than others. Foods that are rich in glutamate include tomatoes, mushrooms, parmesan cheese, milk and mackerel.

Glycemic index -

Glycemic index (GI) is a measure of how carbohydrate-containing foods affect blood glucose levels. It is assessed by having one or more people eat a specific amount of a single food [usually 50 grams of digestible carbohydrate (total carbohydrate minus fiber)] and then measuring the change in blood sugar levels compared with the levels achieved after they have eaten a control food containing the same amount of digestible carbohydrate, such as white bread or glucose. The average change in blood sugar levels over a set period of time relative to the levels after consumption of the control food, usually white bread or glucose, is the food's glycemic index.
GI is a useful scientific research tool. However, it is very difficult to apply the glycemic index to foods consumed in the real world environment, as GI can vary widely depending on the ripeness of a food, the degree to which a food is cooked, and other factors. That is why there are questions about its use as a measure on which to base dietary recommendations for the general population.

Glycemic load -

The concept of glycemic load was developed to give researchers a more accurate picture of the impact of carbohydrate consumption on the body. The glycemic load calculation takes into account the glycemic index of a specific food as well as the amount of carbohydrate in a serving of that food. To calculate glycemic load, you multiply the grams of carbohydrate in a serving of food by that food's glycemic index. As with glycemic index, glycemic load is a research tool but there are questions about its use as a measure on which to base dietary recommendations for the general population.

Glycerin -

A syrupy type of alcohol derived from sugar which is used in food flavorings to maintain desired food consistency.

Glycerol -

A colorless, odorless, syrupy liquid-chemically, an alcohol that is obtained from fats and oils and used to retain moisture and add sweetness to foods.

Glycogen -

Glycogen is the main form of carbohydrate storage in animals and occurs primarily in the liver and muscle tissue. It is readily converted to glucose as needed by the body to satisfy its energy needs.

Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) -

The Food and Drug Administration’s (FDA’s) approval mechanism for a process to manufacture a given food or food additive. It is implemented instead of specific regulations.

Grains -

Grains are the seeds or fruits of various food plants including cereal grasses. The examples of wheat, corn, oats, barley, rye and rice provide a partial list. Grain foods include foods such as bread, cereals, rice and pasta.

GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe) -

GRAS is the regulatory status of food ingredients not evaluated by the FDA prescribed testing procedure. It also includes common food ingredients that were already in use when the 1959 Food Additives Amendment to the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act was enacted.

Guar gum -

A substance made from the seeds of the guar plant which acts as a stabilizer in food systems.

Glossary of Food-Related Terms (Ff)

Glossary of Food-Related Terms (Ff)

Fat replacers -

Fat replacers are developed to duplicate the taste and texture of fat but contain fewer calories per gram than fat. Fat replacers generally fall into three categories: carbohydrate, protein or fat-based. The ingredients that are used to replace fat depend on how the food product will be eaten or prepared. For example not all fat replacer ingredients are heat stable. Thus the fat replacer that worked well in a salad dressing may not work well in a muffin mix.

Fats (dietary fats) -

Fats are referred to in the plural because there is no one type of fat. Fats are composed of the same three elements as carbohydrates; carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. However fats have relatively more carbon and hydrogen and less oxygen. Thus supplying a higher fuel value of 9 calories per gram (versus 4 calories per gram from carbohydrates and protein). One molecule of fat can be broken down into three molecules of fatty acids and one molecule of glycerol. Thus fats are known chemically as triglycerides. Fats are a vital nutrient in a healthy diet. Fats supply essential fatty acids such as linoleic acid which is especially important to childhood growth. Fat helps maintain healthy skin, regulate cholesterol metabolism and is a precursor of prostaglandins (hormone-like substances that regulate some body processes). Dietary fat is needed to carry fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K and to aid in their absorption from the intestine.

Fatty acid -

Fatty acids are generally classified as saturated, monounsaturated or polyunsaturated. These terms refer to the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon atoms of the fat molecule. In general fats that contain a majority of saturated fatty acids are solid at room temperature although some solid vegetable shortening are up to 75 percent unsaturated. Fats containing mostly unsaturated fatty acids are usually liquid at room temperature and are called oils.

Fertilizer -

Any organic or inorganic material either natural or synthetic used to supply elements (such as nitrogen, phosphate and potash) essential for plant growth. If used in excess or attached to eroding soil, fertilizers can become a source of water pollution.

Ferulic acid -

A type of phenol found in various fruits and vegetables and citrus fruits which has antioxidant like activities that may reduce the risk of degenerative diseases, heart disease and eye disease.

Fiber -

Dietary fiber generally refers to parts of fruits, vegetables, grains, nuts and legumes that can't be digested by humans. Meats and dairy products do not contain fiber. Studies indicate that high-fiber diets can reduce the risks of heart disease and certain types of cancer. There are two basic types of fiber; soluble and insoluble. Soluble fiber in cereals, oatmeal, beans and other foods has been found to lower blood cholesterol. Insoluble fiber in cauliflower, cabbage and other vegetables and fruits helps move foods through the stomach and intestine which decreases the risk of cancers of the colon and rectum.

Flavanones -

A type of flavonoid found in citrus fruits which provides the health benefits of neutralizing free radicals and possibly reducing the risk of cancer.

Flavones -

A type of flavonoid found in various fruits and vegetables which provides the health benefits of neutralizing free radicals and possibly reducing the risk of cancer.

Fluoride -

Fluoride is a natural component of minerals in rocks and soils. Widespread use of fluoride in water supplies and oral health products is credited with the dramatic decline in dental caries among children and adults alike. All water contains fluoride but it is sometimes necessary to add it to some public supplies to attain the optimal amount for dental health. Fluoride makes tooth enamel stronger and more resistant to decay. It also prevents the growth of harmful bacteria and interferes with converting fermentable carbohydrates to acids in the mouth.

Folic acid -

Folic acid, folate, folacin, all form a group of compounds functionally involved in amino acid metabolism and nucleic acid synthesis. Good dietary sources of folate include leafy, dark green vegetables, legumes, citrus fruits and juices, peanuts, whole grains and fortified breakfast cereals. Recent studies show if all women of childbearing age consumed sufficient folic acid (either through diet or supplements) then 50 to 70 percent of birth defects of the brain and spinal cord could be prevented according to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC.) Folic acid is critical from conception through the first four to six weeks of pregnancy when the neural tube is formed. This means adequate diet or supplement use should begin before pregnancy occurs. Recent research findings also show low blood folate levels can be associated with elevated plasma homocysteine and increased risk of coronary heart disease.

Food and Drug Administration (FDA) -

The Food and Drug Administration is part of the Public Health Service of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. It is the regulatory agency responsible for ensuring the safety and wholesomeness of all foods sold in interstate commerce except meat, poultry and eggs (which are under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Department of Agriculture). FDA develops standards for the composition, quality, nutrition, safety and labeling of foods including food and color additives. It conducts research to improve detection and prevention of contamination. It collects and interprets data on nutrition, food additives and pesticide residues. The agency also inspects food plants, imported food products and feed mills that make feeds containing medications or nutritional supplements that are destined for human consumption. And it regulates radiation-emitting products such as microwave ovens. FDA also enforces pesticide tolerances established by the Environmental Protection Agency for all domestically produced and imported foods except for foods under USDA jurisdiction.

Food Guide Pyramid -

The Food Guide Pyramid is a graphic design used to communicate the recommended daily food choices contained in the Dietary Guidelines for Americans. The information provided was developed and promoted by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

Food idiosyncrasy -

Non-allergic reaction to food or food component that occurs through unknown mechanisms.

Food intolerance -

A general term for any adverse reaction to a food or food component that does not involve the body’s immune system.

Food irradiation -

The exposure of food to sufficient radiant energy (gamma rays, x-rays and electron beams) to destroy microorganisms and insects. Irradiation is used in food production and processing to promote food safety.

Food preservatives -

All preservatives prevent spoilage either by slowing the growth of organisms that live on food or by protecting the food from oxygen. Antimicrobials are preservatives that protect food by slowing the growth of bacteria, molds and yeasts. Antioxidants are preservatives that protect by preventing food molecules from combining with oxygen (air).

Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA) -

A law (enacted in August 1996) which significantly amended the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) and the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) and thus provided increased protection for infants and children from pesticide risk. The new safety standard resulting from FQPA is a "reasonable certainty of no harm" standard for aggregate exposure using dietary residues and all other reliable exposure information.

Food safety -

Food safety is a relative and not absolute matter. Relative food safety can be defined as the practical certainty that injury or damage will not result from food or ingredient used in reasonable and customary manner and quantity.

Foodborne disease -

Disease usually gastrointestinal caused by organisms or their toxins carried in ingested food also commonly known as "food poisoning."

Fortified foods -

Fortified foods have nutrients added to them that were not present originally. For example milk is fortified with vitamin D which helps your body absorb calcium and phosphorus found naturally in milk.

Free radical -

Highly reactive substances that result from exposure to oxygen, background radiation and other environmental factors. These free radicals cause cellular damage in the body. The damage may be repaired by antioxidants.

Fructo-oliogosaccharides (FSO) -

A type of prebiotic/ probiotic found in Jerusalem artichokes, shallots and onion powder which may improve gastrointestinal health.

Fructose -

Fructose is a monosaccharide found naturally in fruits, as an added sugar in a crystalline form and as a component of high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS).

Fruit -

Fruit is the usually edible reproductive body of a seed plant especially one having a sweet pulp associated with the seed.

Functional component -

Those components in food that provide special health benefits. The abilities of these functional components may reduce cancer risk, aid digestion, decrease risk of tooth decay or improve various other body functions or reduce disease risk.

Functional foods -

Foods that may provide health benefits beyond basic nutrition. Examples include tomatoes with lycopene; thought to help prevent the incidence of prostate and cervical cancers. Fiber in wheat bran and sulfur compounds in garlic also believed to prevent cancer.

Fungicide -

A chemical that is mixed with wax and applied to fruits or vegetables to prevent mold and rot.

Glossary of Food-Related Terms (Ee)

Glossary of Food-Related Terms (Ee)

E. coli: O157:H7 -

The bacteria Escherichia coli: O157:H7 is a type of E. coli associated with foodborne illness. Healthy cattle and humans can carry the bacteria. It can be transferred from animal to animal, human and food. Transmission from person to person through close contact is a potential problem especially among young children in daycare.

Eating disorders -

Illnesses characterized by abnormal eating patterns that may endanger health or increase the risk for other diseases. Eating disorders may be classified as anorexia, bulimia, compulsive overeating, binge eating or any combination of these. Each is based on specific diagnostic criteria.

Ecologist -

An individual who studies the interrelationships between organisms and their environment.

Ellagic acid -

A natural-cancer fighting agent found in strawberries.

Endocrine disruption -

It could lead to toxic outcomes; such as cancer or adverse reproductive effects.

Enriched foods -

Enriched foods are those that nutrients have been added to replace the nutrients which were lost during food processing. For example B vitamins are lost in processing; wheat to white flour and these are then added back to the flour.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) -

The EPA's mission is to protect human health and safeguard the natural environment air, water and land upon which life depends. Through regulation, EPA tries to ensure the human population and the environment is protected from environmental risks and exposures.

Epidemiology -

The study of distribution and determinants of diseases or other health outcomes in human populations. It seeks to expose potential associations between aspects of health, diet, lifestyle, habits or other factors within populations. Epidemiological studies may suggest relationships between two factors but do not provide the basis for conclusions about cause and effect. Possible associations inferred from epidemiological research can turn out to be coincidental.

Epinephrine -

An adrenal hormone that stimulates autonomic nerve reaction. It is used in the treatment of anaphylaxis to open airways and blood vessels.

Essential fatty acids (EFAs) -

A type of fatty acid that the body cannot produce and which must be obtained from food.

Experimental group -

The group of subjects in an experimental study which receives a treatment.

Glossary of Food-Related Terms (Dd)

Glossary of Food-Related Terms (Dd)

Dental caries -

Popularly known as cavities. It occurs when bacteria in the mouth feed on fermentable carbohydrates and produce acids that dissolve tooth enamel. Various conditions affect this process such as heredity and the composition and flow of saliva. Any fermentable carbohydrate (starches and sugars) can serve as food for cavity-causing bacteria. The amount of carbohydrate is not as important as how often these foods are eaten and how long they stay in the mouth. Widespread use of fluoride in water supplies and oral health products is credited with the dramatic decline in dental caries among children and adults alike over the past 20 years.

Dextrin -

Dextrins are a group of carbohydrates produced by the hydrolysis of starch. They have the same general formula as carbohydrates but are of shorter chain length.

Diabetes -

Diabetes is the name for a group of medical disorders characterized by high blood sugar levels. Normally when people eat; food is digested and much of it is converted to glucose (a simple sugar). Body uses it for energy. The blood carries the glucose to cells where it is absorbed with the help of the hormone insulin. For those with diabetes, the body does not make enough insulin or cannot properly use the insulin it does make. Without insulin glucose accumulates in the blood rather than moving into the cells. High blood sugar levels result.

Diallyl sulfide -

A type of sulfide/ thoil found in onions, garlic, olives, leeks and scallions which may provide the health benefits of lowering LDL cholesterol and of maintaining a healthy immune system.

Digestion -

The process of transforming the foods that we eat into units for absorption.

DNA -

Also known as Deoxyribonucleic acid. This is the molecule that carries the genetic information for most living systems. The DNA molecule consists of four bases (adenine, cytosine, guanine and thymine) and a sugar-phosphate backbone, arranged in two connected strands to form its characteristic double-helix.

Glossary of Food-Related Terms (Cc)

Glossary of Food-Related Terms (Cc)

Caffeic acid -

A type of phenol found in various fruits and vegetables which has antioxidant like activities that may reduce the risk of degenerative diseases, heart disease and eye disease.

Caffeine -

Caffeine is a naturally-occurring substance found in the leaves, seeds or fruits of over 63 plant species worldwide and is part of a group of compounds known as methylxanthines. The most commonly known sources of caffeine are coffee and cocoa beans, cola nuts and tea leaves. Caffeine is a pharmacologically active substance and depending on the dose and can be a mild central nervous system stimulant. Caffeine does not accumulate in the body over the course of time and is normally excreted within several hours of consumption.

Calcium -

A mineral that builds bones and strengthens bones, helps in muscle contraction and heartbeat, assists with nerve functions and blood clotting. Teens 18 years and younger should strive to consume about 1,300 milligrams per day. Individuals 50 years and older need about 1,200 milligrams per day. Everyone else should strive for about 1,000 milligrams per day. Milk and other diary foods such as yogurt and most cheeses are the best sources of calcium. In addition, dark green leafy vegetables, fish with edible bones, and calcium fortified foods supply significant amounts.

Calorie -

A calorie is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one milliliter (ml) of water at a standard initial temperature by one degree centigrade (1°C). It is also the general term for energy in food used synonymously with the term energy.

Carbohydrate -

Carbohydrates are organic compounds that consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They vary from simple sugars containing from three to seven carbon atoms to very complex polymers. Only the hexoses (sugars with six carbon atoms) and pentoses (sugars with five carbon atoms) and their polymers play important roles in nutrition. Carbohydrates in food provide 4 calories per gram.
Plants manufacture and store carbohydrates as their chief source of energy. The glucose synthesized in the leaves of plants is used as the basis for more complex forms of carbohydrates. Classification of carbohydrates relates to their structural core of simple sugars, saccharides. Principal monosaccharides that occur in food are glucose and fructose. Three common disaccharides are sucrose, maltose and lactose. Polysaccharides of interest in nutrition include starch, dextrin, glycogen and cellulose.

Carcinogens, natural and synthetic -

The basic mechanism involved in the entire process of carcinogenesis - from exposure to the organism to expression of tumors - are qualitatively similar, if not identical, for the synthetic and naturally occurring carcinogens. Consequently, both naturally occurring and synthetic chemicals can be evaluated by the same epidemiologic or experimental methods and procedures.

Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) -

The CDC composed of 11 Centers; Institutes and Offices. Aim to promote health and quality of life by preventing and controlling disease, injury and disability. The Center is a component of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS).

Carrageenan -

A compound extracted from Irish moss (a type of seaweed) that is used in puddings, milk shakes and ice cream to stabilize and keep color and flavor even.

Catechins -

A type of flavonoid found in tea which provides the health benefits of neutralizing free radicals and possibly reducing the risk of cancer.

Cellulose -

A complex carbohydrate that constitutes the chief part of the cell walls of most plants. A component of dietary fiber and cellulose is indigestible by humans.

Cholesterol (dietary) -

Cholesterol is not a fat but rather a fat-like substance classified as a lipid. Cholesterol is vital to life and is found in all cell membranes. It is necessary for the production of bile acids and steroid hormones. Dietary cholesterol is found only in animal foods. Abundant in organ meats and egg yolks; cholesterol is also contained in meats and poultry. Vegetable oils and shortenings are cholesterol-free.

Cholesterol (serum or blood) -

High blood cholesterol is a risk factor in the development of coronary heart disease. Most of the cholesterol that is found in the blood is manufactured by the body in the liver at a rate of about 800 to 1,500 milligrams a day. By comparison the average American consumes 300 to 450 milligrams daily in foods.

Cholesterol (different types) -

Blood cholesterol is divided into three separate classes of lipoproteins: very-low density lipoprotein (VLDL), low-density lipoprotein (LDL) which contains most of the cholesterol found in the blood and high-density lipoprotein (HDL).
LDL seems to be the culprit in coronary heart disease and is popularly known as the "bad cholesterol." By contrast HDL is increasingly considered desirable and known as the "good cholesterol."

Chromosome -

Thread-like components in the cell that contain DNA. They make proteins. Genes are carried on the chromosomes.

Clinical trials -

Clinical trials undertake experimental study of human subjects. Trials may attempt to determine whether the finds of basic research are applicable to humans or to confirm the results of epidemiological research. Studies may be small with a limited number of participants or they may be large intervention trials that seek to discover the outcome of treatments on entire populations. The "gold standard" clinical trials are double-blind, placebo-controlled studies which employ random assignment of subjects to experimental and control groups unknown to the subject or the researcher.

Confounding variable or confounding factor -

A "hidden" variable that may cause an association which the researcher attributes to other variables.

Collagen hydrolysate -

A functional component of gelatin which may help improve some symptoms associated with osteoarthritis.

Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) -

A type of fatty acid found in cheeses and some meat products which may provide the health benefits of improving body composition and decreasing the risk of certain cancers.

Continuing Survey of Food Intake of Individuals (CSFII) -

A part of the National Nutrition Monitoring System which was the first nationwide dietary intake survey designed to be conducted annually. The survey is conducted by the USDA.

Control group -

The group of subjects in a study to whom a comparison is made in order to determine whether an observation or treatment has an effect. In an experimental study it is the group that does not receive a treatment. Subjects are as similar as possible to those in the test or treatment group.

Controlled experiment -

In this type of research, study subjects (whether animal or human) are selected according to relevant characteristics and then randomly assigned to either an experimental group or a control group. Random assignment ensures that factors known as variables which may affect the outcome of the study are distributed equally among the groups and therefore could not lead to differences in the effect of the treatment under study. The experimental group is then given a treatment (sometimes called an intervention) and the results are compared to the control group which does not receive treatment. A placebo or false treatment may be administered to the control group. With all other variables controlled, differences between the experimental and control groups may be attributed to the treatment under study.

Correlation -

An association or when one phenomenon is found to be accompanied by another. A correlation does not prove cause and effect. Correlation may also be defined statistically.

Crop residues -

Plant materials remaining from the former crop that are left on the soil surface after planting form crop residues. Crop residues reduce soil erosion, air and surface water pollution, conserve soil moisture and improve the soil by adding organic matter.

Crustacean -

Any of the various aquatic arthropods including lobsters, crabs, shrimps and barnacles. Characteristically have segmented bodies, chitinous exoskeletons and paired, jointed limbs.

Cultural controls -

An integrated pest management method which includes annual crop rotation to discourage pests and weed production.

Cyclamate -

A sweetener which is 30 times sweeter than sucrose, calorie free and heat stable and works synergistically with other sweeteners. It is approved for tabletop use in Canada and more than 50 countries in Europe, Asia, South America and Africa. Since 1970, however the use of cyclamate has been banned in the United States on the basis of a study that suggested that cyclamates may be related to the development of bladder tumors in rats. Although 75 subsequent studies have failed to show that cyclamate is carcinogenic, the sweetener has yet to be reapproved for use in the United States.

Glossary of Food-Related Terms (Bb)

Glossary of Food-Related Terms (Bb)

Basal metabolism -

Basal metabolism is the energy (calories) a body burns when completely at rest. Basal metabolism rate (BMR) is the level of energy needed to keep involuntary body processes going. These processes include heartbeat, breathing, generating body heat, perspiring to keep cool & transmitting messages to the brain. For a sedentary person BMR accounts for about 60-70 percent of daily energy expenditure; the remaining 30-40 percent is from physical activity and from body heat produced after a meal. Physical activity is responsible for as much as 50-60 percent of the total energy expenditure in people who include frequent aerobic activity into their lifestyles.

Basophils -

Blood cells which when connected to immunoglobulin E antibodies release histamine or other substances causing allergic symptoms.

Beta-carotene -

A type of carotenoid found in various fruits and vegetables which provide the health benefit of neutralizing free radicals that may cause damage to cells.

Beta glucan -

A soluble fiber in oats which provides the health benefit of reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease by decreasing circulating blood cholesterol.

Bias -

Bias occurs when problems in study design lead to effects that are not related to the variables being studied. An example is selection bias which occurs when study subjects are chosen in a way that can misleadingly increase or decrease the strength of an association. Choosing experimental and control group subjects from different populations would result in a selection bias.

Biodegradable -

Describes any material that can be broken down by biological action (e.g., dissimilation, digestion, denitrification). The breakdown of material (chemicals) by microorganisms (bacteria, fungus, etc.).

Biological activity -

The effect (change in metabolic activity upon living cells) caused by specific compounds or agents. For example the drug aspirin causes the blood to thin that is to clot less easily.

Biological controls -

An integrated pest management method which includes the use of living organisms to reduce the extent of pest problems. This includes the use of beneficial or predatory insects such as ladybugs and parasitic wasps to control crop-destroying bugs.

Biopesticide -

A biopesticide is any material of natural origin used in pest control derived from living organisms such as bacteria, plant cells or animal cells.

Biotechnology -

The simplest definition of biotechnology is "applied biology." The application of biological knowledge and techniques to develop products. It may be further defined as the use of living organisms to make a product or run a process. By this definition, the classic techniques used for plant and animal breeding, fermentation and enzyme purification would be considered biotechnology. Some people use the term only to refer to newer tools of genetic science. In this context, biotechnology may be defined as the use of biotechnical methods to modify the genetic materials of living cells so they will produce new substances or perform new functions. Examples include recombinant DNA technology in which a copy of a piece of DNA containing one or a few genes is transferred between organisms or "recombined" within an organism.

Blind (single or double) experiment -

In a single blind experiment the subjects do not know whether they are receiving an experimental treatment or a placebo. In a double blind experiment neither the researchers nor the participants are aware of which subjects receive the treatment - until after the study is completed.

Body mass index (BMI) -

Method used for determining overweight and obesity in adults. BMI is a calculation that divides a person’s weight in kilograms by height in meters squared (BMI = [kg/m²]. BMI can also be calculated in pounds and inches: BMI=[lbs/in²] X 703. The general guideline currently recommended by the Center for Disease Control and Prevention is that individuals with a BMI of 25 to 29.9 are considered overweight and those individuals with a BMI greater than 30 are considered obese.

Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) -

Bovine spongiform encephalopathy or BSE is also known as "mad cow disease." It is a rare chronic degenerative disease affecting the brain and central nervous system of cattle. Cattle with BSE lose their coordination, develop abnormal posture and experience changes in behavior. Clinical symptoms take 4-5 years to develop followed by death in a period of several weeks to months unless the affected animal is destroyed sooner.

rBST (bovine somatotropin) -

Recombinant bovine somatotropin (rBST) is virtually identical to a cow's natural somatotropin; a hormone produced in its pituitary gland that stimulates milk production. Treatment with rBST can increase a cow's milk production by 10 percent to 15 percent.

Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) -

One of the most common microorganisms used in biologically-based pesticides is the Bacillus thuringiensis or Bt bacterium. Several of the proteins produced by the Bt principally in the coating the bacteria forms around itself are lethal to individual species of insects. By using Bt in pesticide formulations target insects can be controlled using an environmentally benign biologically-based agent. Bt-based insecticides have been widely used by home gardeners for many years as well as on farms.

Bulimia Nervosa -

An eating disorder characterized by rapid consumption of a large amount of food in a short period of time with a sense of lack of control during the episode and self-evaluation unduly influenced by body weight and shape. There are two forms of the condition; purging and non-purging. The first type regularly engages in purging through self-induced vomiting or the excessive use of laxatives or diuretics. Alternatively, the non-purging type controls weight through strict dieting, fasting or excessive exercise.

Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) -

A phenolic chemical compound used to preserve foods by preventing rancidity. It may also be used as a defoaming agent for yeast. BHA is found in foods high in fats and oils also in meats, cereals, baked goods, beer, and snack foods.

Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) -

A phenolic chemical compound used to keep food from changing flavor, odor and color. It is added to foods high in fats and oils and cereals.